Amanita muscaria
Enable an AI agent to recognise candidate Amanita muscaria, assess identification confidence and biological condition, and decide appropriate observation, sampling, handling and exposure-response actions.
Research draft, second pass
A second pass drafted this model: the structure a model of this thing needs, and what is known about it in the world. The line under this one says how the second half was obtained - researched against sources, or recalled without web access, in which case nothing here was read anywhere and every claim is a lead to verify. Unreviewed either way.
Researched by: Codex + Grok
Purpose and description
Enable an AI agent to recognise candidate Amanita muscaria, assess identification confidence and biological condition, and decide appropriate observation, sampling, handling and exposure-response actions.
Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. is the type species of Amanita (Amanitaceae, Agaricales): an ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete whose fruit bodies typically bear a red to orange pileus with white universal-veil warts, free white gills, a pendulous annulus, a bulbous stipe with concentric volval ruffs, inamyloid white spores, and isoxazole toxins (ibotenic acid and muscimol) rather than amatoxins.
It can be Document cap, underside and complete stem base, with scale and developmental stage.; Compare observed characters with a geographically appropriate key and refer unresolved candidates to a mycologist.; Link authorised voucher, microscopy and sequence sampling to the original fruiting body.; Revisit a fruiting site while keeping mushroom counts separate from fungal-individual counts.; Label and segregate collected material to reduce accidental ingestion and preserve identification evidence.; Route suspected ingestion to poison-control or veterinary expertise with available specimen and exposure details..
Distinguishing features
Inspect the combined cap, gills, ring and complete stem base: coloured cap with pale veil remnants, white free gills, a hanging ring and a bulb with broken veil bands support a fly-agaric identification; cap colour alone does not. [Vancouver Mycological Society](https://vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/poisonous/amanita-muscaria/)
For confusion with panther-like Amanita, compare loose, ascending basal veil bands with an abrupt basal collar; require a regional identification key rather than treating this contrast as universally decisive. [Vancouver Mycological Society](https://vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/poisonous/amanita-muscaria/)
For a faded or apparently spotless candidate, inspect sheltered veil remnants and record weathering: cap warts can wash away, so their absence alone does not exclude the identification. [Vancouver Mycological Society](https://vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/poisonous/amanita-muscaria/)
Where microscopy is needed, compare a white spore print and smooth, non-amyloid spores against the regional key; these supporting characters do not uniquely identify the species. [Vancouver Mycological Society](https://vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/poisonous/amanita-muscaria/)
For closely related fly agarics, test the identification against the authority's geographic and molecular circumscription; named colour forms need not correspond to genetic lineages. [Vancouver Mycological Society](https://vanmyco.org/about-mushrooms/poisonous/amanita-muscaria/)
Scope
+ Taxonomic interpretation of Amanita muscaria and uncertainty around regional species boundaries
+ Recognition from complete fruiting bodies, diagnostic photographs and linked laboratory evidence
+ Development, weathering, damage and preservation of observed material
+ Fruiting location, season and evidence of association with host trees
+ Specimen-specific chemical evidence, exposure concerns and handling decisions
- Independent models of neighbouring Amanita species or names not folded into this registry entry
- Whole-forest condition and host-tree health
- Clinical diagnosis and treatment of human or animal poisoning
- Manufacture, formulation and sale of mushroom-derived commercial products
- Cultural depictions, religious practices and historical symbolism
- Preparation instructions or dosing for consumption
Characteristics
- Taxonomic interpretation
- Authority-qualified species concept; strict sense, broad sense or unresolved Prevents a familiar name from silently combining different regional taxonomic concepts.
- Identification confidence
- Candidate, supported, expert-reviewed, unresolved or rejected; with evidence and reviewer Controls whether an agent can report a species occurrence or must retain a broader identification.
- Observed biological unit
- Fruiting body, cluster, tissue sample, spore sample, mycelium or colonised root Avoids equating visible mushrooms with separate fungal individuals.
- Cap diameter
- Millimetres, with developmental stage and measurement method Supports comparison with an identification key without making size decisive.
- Cap pigmentation and veil remnants
- Observed colour; wart colour, distribution and persistence; obscured or unobserved Records conspicuous recognition evidence while preserving effects of weathering.
- Gill attachment and pigmentation
- Free, attached or unresolved; observed colour Checks the underside rather than relying on a recognisable cap.
- Ring and basal veil configuration
- Ring form; bulb form; broken bands, collar, sack-like structure, absent or unobserved Preserves evidence needed to compare confusable Amanita.
- Development and integrity
- Enclosed, expanding, mature or senescent; intact, weathered, damaged or decomposing Explains missing characters and suitability for further examination.
- Spore evidence
- Length and width in micrometres; sample count, print colour and amyloid reaction Supports microscopic comparison when field evidence is insufficient.
- Host association
- Linked tree taxon; nearby, suspected host or root association supported by evidence Separates proximity from demonstrated ecological association.
- Occurrence context
- Linked locality, observation date, substrate and location uncertainty Allows regional identification and repeat observations to be interpreted.
- Ibotenic acid and muscimol evidence
- Not tested, not detected with detection limit, or concentration in mg/kg with fresh/dry basis and assay Keeps measured chemistry separate from assumptions based on appearance or species name.
Where this came from
wikidata · CC0 1.0
Drafted structure
Bundle to layer to finding to question, as the second pass will find it: 6 bundles · 11 layers · 19 findings · 37 questions.
Taxon and identification Establish what the Amanita muscaria name means for this record and how strongly the material supports that assignment.
Regional fly-agaric concepts and incomplete observations can make a familiar name misleading.
Taxonomic circumscription
Anchor the registry name to an explicit taxonomic interpretation.
Authority-qualified name
Record the treatment used, its geographic applicability and unresolved relationships to neighbouring taxa.
- Which taxonomic authority and dated treatment define Amanita muscaria for this record? provenance
- Does that treatment use Amanita muscaria narrowly or for a broader fly-agaric group? boundary
Identification support
Keep the assigned name traceable to examined material and diagnostic reasoning.
Reviewable determination
Distinguish a visual suggestion from an expert determination and from molecular support.
- Which photographs, voucher, microscopy observations or sequences support this determination? provenance
- Which plausible regional alternatives remain, and what additional evidence would resolve them? boundary
- Should the agent retain Amanita muscaria, report a broader group or request expert review? action
Diagnostic fruiting body Record the combination of visible and microscopic characters needed to examine a candidate fly agaric.
Identification depends on several structures, including parts often missing from photographs or picked specimens.
Cap, gills and veils
Examine the cap, underside, ring and complete stem base together.
Complete character combination
Record observed character agreement and contradictions without treating one striking feature as decisive.
- What cap colour, veil remnants, gill attachment, gill colour and ring configuration are visible? measurement
- Is the complete bulb visible, and what arrangement of veil remnants surrounds it? measurement
- Which observed characters distinguish this specimen from the regional alternatives in the chosen key? boundary
Microscopic comparison
Capture spore evidence when macroscopic examination leaves a meaningful identification gap.
Spore character support
Associate spore observations with sampled material, methods and the limits of their diagnostic value.
- What spore-print colour, spore dimensions, shape and amyloid reaction were observed? measurement
- Which specimen, preparation method, reagent and measurement count produced these observations? provenance
- Do these results discriminate the remaining candidates, or is another method required? action
Development and material condition Interpret visible features and specimen usefulness in relation to development, damage and preservation.
A young, rain-washed or decomposing mushroom can conceal the characters needed for recognition.
Developmental visibility
Relate the developmental stage to which diagnostic structures can actually be assessed.
Stage-dependent observability
Distinguish structures not yet exposed from structures demonstrated to be absent.
- Is the fruiting body enclosed, expanding, mature or senescent? measurement
- Which cap, gill, ring or basal characters are obscured by its developmental stage? boundary
- Would a later observation improve identification without collecting the fruiting body? action
Damage and preservation
Record changes that reduce diagnostic or analytical reliability.
Remaining evidence quality
Assess weathering, missing parts, decay and post-collection alteration separately from identification.
- Which structures are missing, eroded, discoloured, insect-damaged or decomposing? measurement
- What drying, freezing, chemical preservation or other treatment occurred after collection? provenance
- Is the remaining material suitable for morphology, sequencing, chemical analysis or only an uncertain occurrence record? action
Host and fruiting context Connect observations to their locality, potential tree associates and repeat-fruiting history.
Ecological context supports interpretation, but nearby trees and visible mushroom counts can be overinterpreted.
Tree association
Separate a nearby tree from a demonstrated fungal host relationship.
Association evidence
Record candidate host taxa and the evidence supporting each ecological link.
- Which identified trees occur near the fruiting body, and how were their identities established? provenance
- Is the association based on proximity, root examination or linked molecular evidence? boundary
Occurrence and recurrence
Record fruiting events without assuming that each mushroom represents a separate organism.
Bounded fruiting observation
Tie counts and recurrence claims to a defined surveyed place, time and observation effort.
- Where and when were fruiting bodies observed, and what area and search effort were covered? measurement
- Does this record describe one fruiting body, a cluster, a site occurrence or evidence of a particular fungal individual? definition
- What evidence permits linking this event to earlier fruiting at the site? provenance
Chemical hazard and actions Represent chemical evidence and decisions concerning collected material or suspected exposure.
Amanita muscaria's principal active agents include muscimol and ibotenic acid; the model must distinguish species-level hazard knowledge from evidence about a particular sample. [European Union Drugs Agency](https://www.euda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/hallucinogenic-mushrooms_en)
Sample-specific chemistry
Keep measured chemical composition attached to the actual tested material.
Assay and inference limits
Record chemical results and prevent unsupported transfer to other specimens or processed products.
- Were ibotenic acid and muscimol measured, and what were the results, units, detection limits and fresh- or dry-mass basis? measurement
- Which tissue or pooled material was tested, and what processing preceded the assay? provenance
- Which conclusions about untested material remain unsupported by this assay? boundary
Handling and exposure decisions
Determine appropriate observation, collection, segregation and referral actions for the actual context.
Contextual action boundaries
Link each proposed action to identification uncertainty, access conditions and the intended use of the material.
- Is the intended action photography, authorised sampling, storage, relocation or disposal, and what local constraints apply? action
- How will collected material remain labelled and segregated from food and accessible ingestion pathways? action
Suspected ingestion handoff
Preserve specimen identity and exposure information for qualified assessment without making clinical conclusions in this model.
- What material was reportedly ingested, by whom or what animal, at what time, and with what uncertainty about identity and quantity? provenance
- Which locally appropriate poison-control or veterinary service should receive the exposure details and available specimen evidence? action
Evidence and external alignment What the world already says about this thing, gathered so the model can be checked against it.
A model that cannot be lined up against existing standards, identifiers and practice cannot be adopted by anyone who already uses them.
Reported evidence
Findings from the breadth pass, kept separate from the structural claims.
Kinds and varieties
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- var. muscaria (Eurasian scarlet fly agaric, the nomenclatural type)
- subsp./var. flavivolvata (western American red caps with yellow warts, Alaska to the Andes)
- var. guessowii (northeastern North American yellow-to-orange form; var. formosa is treated as a synonym)
- var. inzengae (Inzenga's fly agaric: pale yellow to orange-yellow cap and often tan stipe)
- var. alba (white-capped morph, uncommon and scattered)
- Amanita persicina (peach-to-salmon southeastern North American taxon, now often ranked as a separate species)
- cryptic phylogenetic clades (Eurasian, Eurasian-subalpine, North American) that make the current species a species complex rather than a set of colour varieties
- Which of these kinds and varieties hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Identifiers and schemes
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Wikidata - Q131227 - Species item; common names include fly agaric and fly amanita.
- Index Fungorum - 161267 - Current name Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam., Encycl. Méth. Bot. 1(1): 111 (1783).
- iNaturalist taxon ID - 48715 - Observational/citizen-science taxon key.
- ICNafp scientific name - Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. - Basionym Agaricus muscarius L. 1753; sanctioned by Fries.
- Index Fungorum UUID - {1CB17D41-36B9-11D5-9548-00D0592D548C} - Persistent nomenclatural record identifier.
- Which of these identifiers and schemes hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Standards and regulation
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp), issued under the International Botanical Congress / IAPT: governs the sanctioned name Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), December 2024 constituent update and industry letter: A. muscaria, its extracts, muscimol, ibotenic acid and muscarine are not GRAS and are unapproved food additives; food containing them is adulterated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
- U.S. Controlled Substances Act (Drug Enforcement Administration): the mushroom, muscimol and ibotenic acid are not federally scheduled.
- Louisiana Revised Statute 40:989.1 (Act 159): unlawful to produce, manufacture, distribute or possess A. muscaria for human consumption, with an exception for ornamental or landscaping use.
- Netherlands control of A. muscaria and A. pantherina (effective 1 December 2008), closing former smart-shop sale.
- Australian Poisons Standard: muscimol is a Schedule 9 prohibited substance, which makes A. muscaria illegal to possess, sell, transport or cultivate.
- Which of these standards and regulation hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Real-world use
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Ectomycorrhizal associate of birch, pine, spruce, fir, oak and cedar in temperate and boreal woodland; now also a weed-like introduction with pine plantations in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and parts of South America.
- Traditional Siberian shamanic inebriant and entheogen; some European and Japanese food uses after parboiling and discarding the water.
- Historical domestic insecticide: caps crumbled into milk to kill flies (the source of the epithet muscaria).
- Recreational and commercial psychoactive use of dried caps, teas and 2020s 'legal psychedelic' gummies and extracts.
- Iconographic use in European folklore, children's illustration, and commercial art (fairy-tale toadstools, Super Mario mushrooms).
- Which of these real-world use hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Typical measurements
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- pileus diameter - 5-30 - cm
- stipe length - 5-20 - cm
- stipe width - 1-2 - cm
- basidiospore size (inamyloid) - 9-13 × 6.5-9 - µm
- adult muscimol active dose - about 6 - mg
- adult ibotenic-acid active dose - 30-60 - mg
- ibotenic acid in fresh caps (HPLC) - about 990 - mg/kg
- muscimol in fresh caps (HPLC) - about 380 - mg/kg
- fresh fruit-body mass - 60-70 - g
- symptom onset after ingestion - 30-90 - min
- Which of these typical measurements hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Failure modes and hazards
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Pantherina-muscaria (isoxazole) poisoning: nausea, twitching, cholinergic-like sweating and salivation, ataxia, delirium, agitation, hallucinations, seizures and coma; onset in under two hours.
- Potency varies by season and region; spring and summer fruitings have been reported with up to ten times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.
- Drying decarboxylates ibotenic acid to the more potent GABAA agonist muscimol, so dried material is not milder.
- Accidental paediatric ingestion of the conspicuous red-and-white fruit bodies.
- Commercial food products and extracts sold as legal psychedelics have produced clusters of poisonings; fatal wild-mushroom deaths are rare with modern care, but extract products have been linked to at least one death.
- Misidentification after rain washes off the white warts, leaving a plain red or orange cap.
- Invasive spread in Southern Hemisphere plantations and some Australian rainforest, with potential displacement of native mycorrhizal fungi.
- Ibotenic acid is an NMDA-receptor excitotoxin; muscimol is a potent GABAA agonist - neither is an amatoxin, but field confusion with amatoxin Amanitas is lethal in the other direction.
- Which of these failure modes and hazards hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Regional variation
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Eurasia: classic scarlet var. muscaria with birch and conifers; vernacular names often mean 'fly mushroom' (German Fliegenpilz) or the 'mad/false' counterpart of Caesar's mushroom (Catalan oriol foll, Italian ovolo matto).
- Western North America to the Andes: red caps with yellow warts treated as subsp. flavivolvata.
- Northeastern North America: yellow-orange var. guessowii is the common field form.
- Southeastern United States: peach-salmon populations now widely called A. persicina rather than A. muscaria.
- Siberia: documented ritual inebriant use; Europe: folklore and occasional detoxified food; United States 2020s: unscheduled retail extracts until the FDA food ban.
- Southern Hemisphere: not native; naturalised and locally invasive with introduced Pinus, and in New Zealand also with Nothofagus.
- Legal geography is patchy: food-illegal in the United States, consumption-banned in Louisiana, controlled in the Netherlands, muscimol Schedule 9 in Australia; unscheduled in most other jurisdictions.
- Which of these regional variation hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Neighbouring kinds and how to tell them apart
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Amanita caesarea (Caesar's mushroom) and Mexican A. basii - Edible lookalikes have an orange-red cap without persistent white warts, bright yellow gills, stipe and ring, and a distinct sack-like white volva; A. muscaria has white gills/stipe/ring and concentric volval ruffs.
- Amanita pantherina (panther cap) - Grey-brown (not red) cap with white warts; same isoxazole chemistry, often at higher or more variable concentration; separated by pileus colour and typically a more clearly marginate bulb.
- Amanita xanthocephala (vermilion grisette, Australia) - Native eucalypt associate that lacks the white warts and the annulus of introduced A. muscaria.
- Amanita phalloides / destroying angels (A. virosa, A. bisporigera and allies) - Green or entirely white caps, saccate volva, amatoxins with delayed hepatotoxicity; A. muscaria is red/orange (or rarely white) with concentric ruffs and rapid CNS isoxazole effects. A white A. muscaria var. alba is the dangerous confusion case - check volva form and the yellowish subcuticular layer of young muscaria buttons.
- Immature puffballs - A sectioned puffball is solid white throughout; a young Amanita button shows a developing stipe, gills and cap inside the universal veil.
- Amanita persicina and A. chrysoblema - Closest members of stirps Muscaria; separated in current practice by pileus colour (peach versus scarlet versus white) plus geography, pending a full species-complex revision.
- Which of these neighbouring kinds and how to tell them apart hold for the sense of Amanita muscaria this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Sources
- Amanita muscaria - Taxonomy, infraspecific taxa, morphology and measurements, lookalikes, ecology, toxins, ethnomycology, and the 2024 FDA food-ingredient action.
- Amanita muscaria (Q131227) - Stable identifiers (Wikidata, Index Fungorum, iNaturalist) and listed infraspecific names.
- Index Fungorum Name Record: Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. - Current name, basionym Agaricus muscarius L., sanctioning by Fries, and Index Fungorum registration identifier 161267.
- FDA Alerts Industry and Consumers about the Use of Amanita Muscaria or its Constituents in Food - U.S. determination that the mushroom, extracts, muscimol, ibotenic acid and muscarine are not GRAS and are unapproved food additives.
- Need for a Public Health Response to the Unregulated Sales of Amanita muscaria Mushrooms - Unscheduled status under the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, commercial edible products, and selected national sales restrictions (with the caveat that some listed jurisdictions come from manufacturer claims).
- Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others (PIM G026) - Pantherina-muscaria poisoning syndrome, isoxazole toxins in all parts of the fruit body, colour variants, and worldwide temperate distribution.
- Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology and ethnomycology - Ibotenic acid and muscimol as principal actives; HPLC concentrations in cap versus stipe; typical fresh fruit-body mass and ibotenic-acid content.
What the second pass must settle
- Which current taxonomic authority should define this registry entry, and how should records using broader historical fly-agaric concepts be retained without creating unrequested registry splits?
- Which regional look-alikes require explicit comparison, and what minimum character set supports a defensible identification in each region?
- Which sequence markers and curated reference specimens reliably distinguish Amanita muscaria from its closest regional relatives?
- What evidence is sufficient to infer a host relationship or continuity of a fungal individual across separate fruiting events?
- How representative are chemical measurements across tissues, developmental stages, localities and preservation histories, and which inferences must remain sample-specific?