Erythroxylum coca
Enable an AI agent to recognise Erythroxylum coca, assess the condition and provenance of its plants and botanical specimens, and determine which proposed actions require further evidence or authority.
Research draft, second pass
A second pass drafted this model: the structure a model of this thing needs, and what is known about it in the world. The line under this one says how the second half was obtained - researched against sources, or recalled without web access, in which case nothing here was read anywhere and every claim is a lead to verify. Unreviewed either way.
Researched by: Codex + Grok
Purpose and description
Enable an AI agent to recognise Erythroxylum coca, assess the condition and provenance of its plants and botanical specimens, and determine which proposed actions require further evidence or authority.
Erythroxylum coca Lam. is a cultivated shrub of the family Erythroxylaceae, native to the Andean-Amazonian tropics, whose leaves accumulate tropane alkaloids (chiefly cocaine) and are harvested as the traditional Andean masticatory and medicine and as the botanical raw material for licit and illicit cocaine.
It can be Document diagnostic structures and request expert comparison with authenticated coca specimens.; Track a living plant's condition and reproductive state through dated observations.; Link collected material and laboratory results to a parent plant or accession.; Flag uncertain species assignments, mixed samples and contradictory provenance.; Evaluate whether documented authority covers a proposed sampling, retention or transfer action.; Refer processed products, exposure incidents and taxonomic alternatives to their neighbouring models..
Distinguishing features
Check the scientific determination behind a 'coca' label: the common name also covers Erythroxylum novogranatense and cannot establish this registry identity. [Kew](https://www.kew.org/plants/coca)
Inspect intact leaves for the paired longitudinal curved lines flanking the midrib, recording underside photographs; treat this as supporting morphology rather than a species-exclusive test. [IPCS botanical description](https://inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/erythrox.htm)
Compare multiple leaves and available reproductive structures against authenticated specimens of E. coca and competing Erythroxylum taxa; leaf size and shape alone cannot reliably separate cultivated coca types and some wild relatives. [Kew research account](https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/coca-much-more-than-a-drug-source)
For disputed material, require a documented expert determination and, where suitable, molecular comparison with authenticated references; retain an unresolved result when evidence cannot discriminate related taxa. This proposed evidence rule reflects the identification limitations described by [Kew](https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/coca-much-more-than-a-drug-source).
Determine whether the object is an organism or attributable botanical material: an extract or isolated compound belongs to a neighbouring model even when its origin is recorded as E. coca.
Scope
+ Species identification, competing determinations and uncertainty within the coca species complex
+ Individual living plants and traceable botanical specimens or plant parts
+ Vegetative condition, reproductive state and observed environmental context
+ Collection origin, accession history and documented cultivation context
+ Specimen-linked chemical observations and material condition
+ Evidence governing observation, sampling, retention and transfer
- Erythroxylum novogranatense and other related species as independently modelled organisms
- Cocaine as a chemical substance and its manufacture
- Coca teas, extracts and other processed products
- Clinical diagnosis, consumption advice and treatment of exposure
- Plantations as businesses, land parcels or production systems
- Legal regimes and Indigenous cultural practices as independently modelled social systems
Characteristics
- Taxonomic determination
- Erythroxylum coca supported; provisional Erythroxylum coca; unresolved Erythroxylum; alternative taxon Prevents common names and uncertain identifications from becoming definite species assignments.
- Infraspecific assignment
- Name and rank under a cited taxonomic treatment; unassigned; disputed Preserves recognised variation without splitting the authoritative registry entry.
- Identification anchor
- Link to voucher, accession, determiner, reference treatment and determination date Allows an agent to audit or revise an identification.
- Material form
- Living plant; detached leaf; reproductive material; preserved specimen; mixed botanical sample Determines which observations and actions apply to the object.
- Leaf morphology
- Blade length and width in mm; sampled leaf count; shape annotations and calibrated images Supports comparative identification while preserving variation and measurement context.
- Phenological state
- Vegetative; flowering; fruiting; multiple concurrent states; unobserved Indicates available diagnostic structures and reproductive activity.
- Plant condition
- Observed leaf loss, discoloration, lesions, wilting and stem damage, each dated with extent Separates visible condition from an unverified diagnosis.
- Origin and establishment context
- Collection locality and date linked to wild, cultivated, escaped or unknown status and supporting evidence Distinguishes actual origin from current location or assumptions based on appearance.
- Specimen-linked alkaloid result
- Named analyte; laboratory-reported concentration and unit; fresh or dry mass basis; detection limit; untested Keeps chemical evidence tied to the tested material without treating it as proof of species or intended use.
- Action authorisation
- Proposed action linked to jurisdiction, date, custodian consent, applicable authority and unresolved requirements Supports an action-specific decision instead of assigning a universal permitted or prohibited label.
Where this came from
wikidata · CC0 1.0
Drafted structure
Bundle to layer to finding to question, as the second pass will find it: 6 bundles · 11 layers · 18 findings · 38 questions.
Coca taxonomic identity Establish what supports assigning material to Erythroxylum coca.
The name coca and overlapping morphology make unsupported species assignments particularly consequential.
Names and circumscription
Relate supplied names to an explicit botanical treatment.
Supported coca determination
Record the asserted taxon, its authority and any competing identification.
- Which taxonomic treatment defines Erythroxylum coca for this determination? definition
- Who identified the material, when, and against which voucher or reference? provenance
- Does the supplied name denote this species, another coca species or an unresolved common-name usage? boundary
Diagnostic evidence
Assess morphology and supplementary evidence against plausible alternatives.
Coca lookalike separation
Preserve observations and the limits of their ability to exclude related taxa.
- What do calibrated leaf images, stipules and available flowers or fruits show? measurement
- Which evidence distinguishes this material from E. novogranatense and other candidate Erythroxylum species? boundary
- What expert review or validated molecular comparison is needed before the assignment can be accepted? action
Coca material and origin Connect the plant or specimen to its biological origin and accession history.
Detached coca material and inherited labels can lose the evidence needed to establish identity and context.
Organism to specimen
Keep whole plants, detached parts and derivative objects distinguishable.
Botanical material continuity
Define the observed object and preserve its relationship to source material.
- Is this a living E. coca candidate, an identifiable plant part, a preserved voucher or a mixed sample? definition
- Which parent plant or accession produced this specimen, and how was that link maintained? provenance
- Has processing changed the object into a product requiring a separate model? boundary
Collection and establishment
Separate collection facts from inferred cultivation or wild status.
Documented coca origin
Record where the material originated and what establishes its growing context.
- Where and when was the original plant observed or collected, and how precise is that record? provenance
- What evidence supports cultivated, wild, escaped or unknown establishment status? provenance
- Which locality or community-associated information has restrictions on disclosure? action
Coca vitality and phenology Assess living plants through their foliage, woody structure and reproductive observations.
Condition and reproductive state affect specimen interpretation and the need for botanical assessment.
Foliage and stem condition
Record visible change without confusing damage with normal variation or a proven cause.
Coca condition trajectory
Track leaf retention, discoloration and structural damage with their environmental context.
- How have leaf loss, discoloration, wilting or stem lesions changed since the previous observation? measurement
- What recent environmental observations or documented removal of leaves could explain the change? provenance
- What evidence is needed to distinguish physical damage, environmental stress and a biological cause? boundary
Reproductive observation
Record flowers and fruits as both state evidence and identification opportunities.
Coca reproductive state
Distinguish observed reproductive structures from assumptions about maturity or viability.
- Are flowers or fruits present, in what observed stages, and on which dates? measurement
- Is seed viability supported by evidence or merely inferred from fruit presence? boundary
- Can reproductive structures be documented to improve the taxonomic determination? action
Coca sample integrity and chemistry Interpret botanical sample condition and chemical reports at the level actually tested.
A coca label cannot establish a sample's composition, integrity or suitability for a proposed use.
Leaf sample integrity
Assess whether detached material remains attributable and interpretable.
Attributable coca sample
Record preservation, deterioration and possible mixture with other material.
- What drying, preservation and storage history is documented for the leaves or voucher? provenance
- What evidence of mould, foreign material, fragmentation or mixed plant origins is present? measurement
- Does sample condition prevent a defensible botanical or chemical interpretation? boundary
Bounded chemical evidence
Attach analytical results to the sampled tissue and the reporting method.
Specimen-specific alkaloid evidence
Record reported alkaloid measurements without generalising them to every plant or deriving intended use.
- Which tissue and accession were tested, by which laboratory and on what date? provenance
- Which analytes, concentrations, mass basis, detection limits and uncertainties were reported? measurement
- Which conclusions remain unsupported, including species identity, other specimens' composition and consumption suitability? boundary
Coca custody and permitted actions Connect proposed actions to material identity, custody and applicable authority.
Decisions about coca require evidence about the specific material, location and action, while biological identity alone cannot establish intended use.
Action-specific authority
Resolve requirements for a named action in its actual context.
Coca action decision
Support a documented proceed, defer or disallow decision without asserting universal legal status.
- What exact action is proposed: observation, sampling, retention, transfer or disposal? action
- Which current authoritative requirements apply to this material form, jurisdiction and action? provenance
- Do the documented permissions cover the actor, material, destination and date? boundary
Custodianship and use claims
Keep custodian consent and attributed use claims separate from botanical observations.
Documented coca use context
Represent stated research, cultural or other purposes with their provenance and limits.
- Who holds or cares for the plant, and who can authorise access or sampling? provenance
- Who supplied the claimed use context, and what evidence supports it? provenance
- What consent or knowledge-use conditions apply before collecting material or sharing associated information? action
Evidence and external alignment What the world already says about this thing, gathered so the model can be checked against it.
A model that cannot be lined up against existing standards, identifiers and practice cannot be adopted by anyone who already uses them.
Reported evidence
Findings from the breadth pass, kept separate from the structural claims.
Kinds and varieties
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Huánuco / Bolivian coca (E. coca var. coca): the montane eastern-Andean cultivated variety of the Yungas and similar slopes
- Amazonian ipadu (E. coca var. ipadu): a vegetatively propagated lowland form, typically toasted, pulverized and taken with plant ash
- Yungas coca: Bolivian traditional cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz, treated in national law as the core licit traditional crop
- Chapare coca: coca grown in the Cochabamba tropics of Bolivia, often contrasted in policy and markets with Yungas coca
- Which of these kinds and varieties hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Identifiers and schemes
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Scientific name - Erythroxylum coca Lam. - Protologue: Encyclopédie méthodique. Botanique 2: 393 (1786).
- Wikidata - Q158389 - Taxon item for Erythroxylum coca.
- NCBI Taxonomy - 29063 - Taxid for Erythroxylum coca.
- Harmonized System - 1211.30 - HS heading for coca leaves as a traded botanical.
- UN/INCB Yellow List - COCA LEAF - Narcotic drug under the 1961 Single Convention, listed separately from cocaine and ecgonine.
- Which of these identifiers and schemes hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Standards and regulation
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (as amended 1972): coca leaf and cocaine are Schedule I narcotic drugs; Articles 26-27 govern the coca bush and (historically time-limited) traditional chewing.
- International Narcotics Control Board (INCB): monitors licit coca-leaf production and the Yellow List of narcotic drugs.
- United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988: cultivation and trafficking offences and precursor controls used against illicit coca processing.
- Plurinational State of Bolivia, Ley General de la Coca No. 906 (2017): recognizes coca as cultural heritage and confines licit cultivation to authorized zones.
- Peru, Decreto Ley 22095 and the ENACO state monopoly: licit leaf for traditional use and limited industrial extraction, versus illicit plots outside that system.
- United States Controlled Substances Act: coca leaves and cocaine are Schedule II controlled substances (DEA).
- Colombia, Ley 30 de 1986 and successor criminal and crop-substitution rules: cultivation is largely illicit except limited indigenous traditional use.
- Which of these standards and regulation hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Real-world use
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Andean acullico / chacchado: whole or broken dried leaves chewed with an alkaline ash or lime paste (llipta, toqra) for fatigue, hunger and altitude.
- Mate de coca: leaf infusion sold in the Andes, including to travellers, and often seized as scheduled coca leaf when carried abroad.
- Ritual offerings (k'intu, despacho) in Andean religious practice.
- Amazonian ipadu: toasted, powdered leaf mixed with Cecropia or other ash and taken as a moist powder.
- Licensed industrial extraction of cocaine for remaining medical anaesthetic use, and of decocainized leaf extract as a flavouring (historically and still under tight licence).
- Illicit conversion of leaf to coca paste and cocaine hydrochloride in producing regions of the Andes and Amazon.
- Which of these real-world use hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Typical measurements
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Cocaine in air-dried leaf (var. coca) - 0.5-0.8 - % m/m
- Cocaine in air-dried leaf (var. ipadu) - 0.1-0.4 - % m/m
- Shrub height in cultivation - 1-3 - m
- Cultivation elevation (var. coca) - 500-2000 - m a.s.l.
- Dry-leaf yield - 800-2500 - kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹
- Leaf harvests per year - 3-6 - harvests
- Leaf-blade length - 30-80 - mm
- Which of these typical measurements hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Failure modes and hazards
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Extracted cocaine (paste or hydrochloride) produces dependence, acute toxicity and overdose; these harms are not equivalent to traditional leaf chewing.
- Illicit processing contaminates soil and water with kerosene, acids, permanganate and other solvents.
- Possession, import or cultivation outside authorized traditional zones is a criminal offence in most jurisdictions, including of coca tea.
- Illicit plots and forced eradication drive deforestation, displacement and, historically, aerial herbicide exposure.
- Street cocaine is frequently adulterated, adding toxicity unrelated to the leaf itself.
- Pests, disease and poor drying reduce alkaloid quality and make leaf unsaleable in licit traditional markets.
- Which of these failure modes and hazards hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Regional variation
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Bolivia: chewing (acullico) is culturally protected; Law 906 distinguishes Yungas traditional cultivation from illicit expansion, notably in the Chapare.
- Peru: chacchar is customary in the highlands; ENACO runs the licit leaf market, while valleys such as the VRAEM are treated as illicit-production zones.
- Colombia: traditional chewing is limited to some Indigenous groups; most cultivation is illicit and often of the related species E. novogranatense.
- Amazon lowlands (Brazil, Colombia, Peru): ipadu powder-with-ash, not Andean quid chewing.
- North-western Argentina: leaf for chewing and tea is legally tolerated, unlike most of the world.
- Outside the Andes, the leaf itself is generally treated as a scheduled narcotic even when sold as tea.
- Which of these regional variation hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Neighbouring kinds and how to tell them apart
Reported by the breadth pass; each item needs checking against its source before it becomes normative.
- Erythroxylum novogranatense (Colombian and Trujillo coca) - A separate cultivated species: leaves are typically smaller, more obovate and obtuse (versus larger elliptic, acute leaves of E. coca); it is more drought-tolerant, and dried leaf has a higher cinnamoylcocaine-to-cocaine ratio. Trujillo coca is the aromatic flavouring/tea type of coastal northern Peru.
- Wild Erythroxylum species (most of the ~200 species in the genus) - Little or no cocaine; separated by stipule, floral and leaf-areolation characters used in Plowman's keys, not by vernacular 'coca'.
- Catha edulis (khat) - A Celastraceae stimulant chewed as fresh shoots; active principles are cathinone/cathine, not tropane alkaloids.
- 'Catuaba' and other Erythroxylum products in Brazilian trade - Marketed as tonics/aphrodisiacs from different species; they are not cocaine-bearing coca leaf and fail alkaloid assays used for E. coca.
- Which of these neighbouring kinds and how to tell them apart hold for the sense of Erythroxylum coca this model covers, and on what evidence? provenance
Sources
- The Ethnobotany of Coca (Erythroxylum spp., Erythroxylaceae) - Cultivated taxa (var. coca and var. ipadu versus E. novogranatense), traditional preparations, and the morphological characters used to separate them.
- Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the 1972 Protocol - International scheduling of the coca leaf and cocaine, and the Convention's rules on coca-bush cultivation and traditional chewing.
- World Drug Report (coca cultivation, yield and alkaloid chapters) - Where the bush is grown, dry-leaf yields, and the conversion of leaf into cocaine products in monitored producing regions.
- Ley General de la Coca No. 906 of 8 March 2017 - Bolivian legal distinction of traditional coca from illicit cultivation, authorized zones, and cultural-heritage status of the leaf.
- Plants of the World Online: Erythroxylum coca Lam. - Accepted scientific name, authorship (Lamarck 1786), family placement, and native range as treated by Kew.
What the second pass must settle
- Which current taxonomic treatment should govern E. coca and its infraspecific names when botanical authorities disagree?
- Which combined morphological and molecular tests reliably distinguish E. coca from relevant cultivated and wild relatives, especially for sterile or fragmented specimens?
- What reference observations distinguish ordinary seasonal foliage change from stress or disease across documented E. coca populations?
- How do tissue selection, preservation and analytical method constrain comparisons between specimen-linked alkaloid reports?
- Which jurisdiction-specific authorities and custodian or community protocols must be consulted for the actual collection and proposed actions?